Methods of producing ferrihydrite nanoparticle slurries, and systems and products employing the same

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure relates to methods of synthesizing slurries comprising ferrihydrite nanoparticles, and systems and methods employing the same. The method may include the steps of preparing an aqueous solution having ferric iron cations, halide anions, and a two-line iron promoter, and precipitating the ferrihydrite nanoparticles in the aqueous solution, thereby producing a ferrihydrite slurry. The ferrihydrite slurries may be useful in treating a polluted fluid having sulfur contaminants therein.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This patent application claims priority to Prov. U.S. Pat. App. Ser. No.62/314,252, filed Mar. 28, 2016, entitled “METHODS OF PRODUCINGFERRIHYDRITE NANOPARTICLE SLURRIES, AND SYSTEMS AND PRODUCTS EMPLOYINGTHE SAME,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is a colorless gas with the characteristic foulodor of rotten eggs. H₂S gas is heavier than air, poisonous, corrosive,flammable, and explosive. One known process for removing H₂S is theClaus process, which uses a partial combustion and catalytic oxidationto convert H₂S to elemental sulfur. The Claus process is expensive,generally only economically viable when used in large scale sulfurremoval operations.

SUMMARY

Broadly, the present patent application relates to methods of producingslurries having ferrihydrite nanoparticles therein, and systems andproducts employing such slurries. The slurries may be useful, forinstance, in removing H₂S and/or other sulfur pollutants (e.g., COS,CS₂, mercaptans) from a fluid stream. The “Definitions” section towardsthe end of this summary defines “ferrihydrite nanoparticles,” as well asmany other terms used in this patent application.

A. Overview

Referring now to FIG. 1, one method of producing a ferrihydrite slurryincludes the steps of preparing (100) an aqueous solution comprisingferric iron (Fe³⁺) cations, halide anions, and at least one two-lineiron (2LI) promoter, and then precipitating (200) ferrihydritenanoparticles in the aqueous solution. As shown in FIG. 2, the aqueoussolution (20) may be prepared in a container (10) by adding (30) atleast one 2LI promoter, and by adding (40) at least one iron salt towater. If the iron salt is not an iron halide salt, optional additionalhalide-containing salt (42) may be added to the aqueous solution (20) toproduce the halide anions. As shown in FIG. 3, the ferrihydritenanoparticles (60) may be precipitated in the aqueous solution byraising the pH of the solution, such as by contacting the aqueoussolution with a caustic (50) (e.g., an alkali caustic solution). Theresultant slurry comprises ferrihydrite nanoparticles (e.g., two-lineiron nanoparticles, lepidocrocite nanoparticles, or combinationsthereof), the 2LI promoter, halide anions, and alkali cations. Theresultant slurry may be useful in treating polluted sulfur-containingfluids, such as gases containing H₂S, including natural gas, syngas,geothermal steam, and biogas, as well as liquids such as sour water andsour crude oil.

B. Preparation of the Aqueous Solution

As shown in FIG. 2, the aqueous solution having the ferric iron cations,halide anions, and at least one 2LI promoter is generally produced byadding an iron salt, such as ferric chloride, to an aqueous solution,such as water (e.g., potable water, deionized water, other water sourcehaving not greater than 1000 ppm of sulfate anions (SO₄ ⁻)). A 2LIpromoter, such as D-sorbitol, may also be added to the aqueous solution.The iron salt and the 2LI promoter can be added to the aqueous solutionin any suitable order, or even contemporaneously. In one embodiment, the2LI promoter is added prior to the addition of the iron salt. In anotherembodiment, the 2LI promoter is added at the same time as the additionof the iron salt. In another embodiment, the 2LI promoter is added afterthe addition of the iron salt (e.g., after the addition of the caustic),but within several hours (e.g., within 48 hours, or within 24 hours, orwithin 12 hours, or within 8 hours, or within 4 hours, or less) of theaddition of the iron salt so as to restrict degradation of theprecipitated ferrihydrite nanoparticles.

i. Iron Salts

As noted in the Definitions section, the iron salt used to produce theferric iron cations may be a ferric or ferrous salt. If a ferrous saltis used, an oxidizing agent, such as hydrogen peroxide, may be added tothe aqueous solution to change the oxidation state of at least some ofthe iron cations from ferrous(²⁺) to ferric (³⁺) iron. As may beappreciated, the iron salts may be in hydrous or anhydrous form.

In one embodiment, the iron salt used to produce the ferric iron cationsis a ferric iron salt. Some non-limiting examples of ferric iron saltsuseful in facilitating production of ferrihydrite nanoparticles includeferric halide salts (ferric bromide, ferric chloride, ferric fluoride,ferric iodide), ferric sulfate, ferric nitrate, ferric citrate, ferricmolybdate, ferric perchlorate, ferric oxalate, ferric ammonium citrate,ferric EDTA, ferric tartrate, ferric acetate, and other non-halideferric salts. The use of ferric halide salts may be preferred for someapplications since using ferric halide salts forgoes the need to addadditional halide salt to the aqueous solution. Generally the use offerric fluoride is disfavored due to its potential to inhibit sulfurcapture activity. Thus, in one approach, the ferric salt is anon-fluoride ferric halide salt. In a particular embodiment, the ironsalt is ferric chloride (FeCl₃).

In another embodiment, the iron salt used to produce the ferric ironcations is a ferrous salt, such as ferrous halide salts (ferrousbromide, ferrous chloride, ferrous fluoride, ferrous iodide), ferroussulfate, ferrous nitrate, ferrous perchlorate, ferrous citrate, ferrousmolbydate, ferrous oxalate, ferrous ammonium citrate, ferrous EDTA,ferrous tartrate, ferrous acetate, and other non-halide ferrous salts.In one approach, the ferrous salt is a non-fluoride ferrous halide salt.In a particular embodiment, the iron salt is ferrous chloride (FeCl₂).

In yet another embodiment, both ferric iron salts and ferrous iron saltsare used to produce the ferric iron cations of the aqueous solution,such as a mixture of any of the above-identified iron salts. As notedabove, at least some of the ferrous iron cations of the aqueous solutionmay be changed to ferric ion cations via the use of a suitable oxidizingagent, such as hydrogen peroxide, ozone or oxygen. In one embodiment,the iron salt is selected from the group consisting of ferric chloride,ferrous chloride, and combinations thereof.

In another approach, one or more iron sulfides are used in lieu and/orin addition to iron salts. The iron sulfide may be FeS, for instance.The iron sulfides may be captured as a waste stream from other hydrogensulfide capture processes, such as dry box towers. Dry box towerscontain iron oxide pellets for desulfurization, and spent iron oxidepellets contain iron sulfides, such as iron monosulfide (FeS). Thesespent iron oxide pellets may be included in (e.g., suspended in) anaqueous solution at least including halide anions therein (the aqueoussolution may also optionally include 2LI promoter). The oxidation of theiron sulfide in the aqueous solution having halides therein may producethe lepidocrocite species of ferrihydrite nanoparticles. The oxidationof the iron sulfide in the aqueous solution having halides and 2LIpromoter therein may produce both the two-line iron species and thelepidocrocite species of ferrihydrite nanoparticles. Other FeS sourcesinclude, for instance, produced water, scale on equipment (e.g., fromFeS produced via H₂S reaction with iron in pipes and other iron-basedmaterials (e.g., steels)), and geothermal waters, among others.

ii. Two-Line Iron Promoters

As noted in the Definitions section, a “2LI promoter” is a materialadded to an aqueous solution that preferentially promotes production ofthe two-line iron species of ferrihydrite nanoparticles in the aqueoussolution (e.g., during their precipitation/the precipitating step),and/or preferentially restricts degradation of the two-line iron speciesof ferrihydrite nanoparticles in the aqueous solution. A 2LI promotermay inhibit formation of other iron crystalline structures. Someexamples of 2LI promoters useful in accordance with the presentinvention include some carbon-based molecules and their isomers, orpolymers having one or more hydroxyl groups (OH), such as some polyols(e.g., some sugar alcohols), some polysaccharides (e.g., cellulose),alcohols (e.g., methanol, ethanol) and diols (ethylene glycol). Otherexamples of 2LI promoters include some tetrahedral coordinated compounds(as incorporated into the final iron oxide nanoparticles, relative tooxygen), such as some alkali metasilicates.

In one embodiment, the 2LI promoter comprises a carbon-based molecule orpolymer having one or more hydroxyl groups bonded to the carbon backboneof the molecule or polymer. Two-line iron nanoparticles precipitated inthe precipitating step (200) may have Fe—OH groups, which may hydrogenbond to the hydroxyl groups of the polymer. Subsequent phasetransformation of these two-line iron nanoparticles may be restricted bythe molecule or polymer adsorbing to highly reactive, under-coordinatedsurface sites of the two-line iron nanoparticles.

In one aspect, the 2LI promoter comprises a polyol, such as a sugaralcohol. In one approach, the 2LI promoter is a non-cyclical sugaralcohol, such as any of the linear C3-C24 sugar alcohols. Linear sugaralcohols have more degrees of freedom than ringed compounds, and maymore readily interact with surface Fe—OH groups of the ferrihydritenanoparticles. In one embodiment, the 2LI promoter is a C6 sugaralcohol. In one embodiment, the 2LI promoter is selected from the groupconsisting of sorbitol, mannitol, galactitol, iditol, and combinationsthereof. In one embodiment, the 2LI promoter is D-sorbitol. In anotherembodiment, the 2LI promoter is L-sorbitol.

In another embodiment, the 2LI promoter is a C3 sugar alcohol. In oneembodiment, the 2LI promoter is glycerol.

In another embodiment, the 2LI promoter is a C4 sugar alcohol. In oneembodiment, the 2LI promoter is selected from the group consisting oferythritol, threitol, and combinations thereof.

In another embodiment, the 2LI promoter is a C5 sugar alcohol. In oneembodiment, the 2LI promoter is selected from the group consisting ofarabitol, ribitol, xylitol, and combinations thereof.

In another embodiment, the 2LI promoter is a C7 sugar alcohol. In oneembodiment, the 2LI promoter is volemitol.

In another embodiment, the 2LI promoter is a C12 sugar alcohol. In oneembodiment, the 2LI promoter is lactitol.

In another embodiment, the 2LI promoter is a C18 sugar alcohol. In oneembodiment, the 2LI promoter is maltotriitol.

In another embodiment, the 2LI promotor is a non-linear sugar alcoholpolymer, such as maltotetraitol or polyglycitol.

In another embodiment, the 2LI promoter may be one of methanol, ethyleneglycol, or inositol.

In another approach, the 2LI promoter is a monosaccharide, disaccharide,or oligosaccharide. In one embodiment, the 2LI promoter is amonosaccharide, such as any of the C3-C6 aldose or ketose saccharides.In another embodiment, the 2LI promoter is a disaccharide, such as anyof the C12 disaccharides consisting of two C6 monomers connected by α orβ glycosidic bonds. In one embodiment, the C12 disaccharide is sucrose.

In another approach, the 2LI promoter comprises a polysaccharide, suchas a glucan or fructan material. In one embodiment, the 2LI promotercomprises at least one of dextran, dextrin, starch or cellulose. In oneembodiment, the 2LI promoter is cellulose or digested cellulose.

In yet another approach, the 2LI promoter is a tetrahedral coordinatedcompound having tetrahedral coordination to oxygen of the ferrihydritenanoparticles (e.g., to the oxygen of the two-line iron nanoparticles).In one embodiment, the tetrahedral coordinated compound is an alkalimetasilicate, such as sodium metasilicate. When dissolved in the aqueoussolution, sodium metasilicate may transform to silicic acid (H₄SiO₄), atetrahedral coordinated compound. Two-line iron nanoparticles mayinclude tetrahedral and octahedral coordinated iron atoms with respectto oxygen. Incorporating a tetrahedral coordinated compound, like asilicate, into the structure of and/or on the surface of the two-lineiron nanoparticles may lead to enhanced stability of the two-line ironnanoparticles (e.g., because silicate(s) on the surface may bind to thereactive sites where phase transformation to other iron structures(e.g., hematite) can occur; because silicates may render the two-lineiron nanoparticles less soluble, thereby restricting transformation toother iron structures (e.g., to goethite)). Thus, in one embodiment, the2LI promoter is a silicate material, such as an alkali metasilicate ordissolvable silicon monomer materials. In one embodiment, the 2LIpromoter comprises sodium metasilicate.

Additives similar to silicates that may have the same or similar effect,are, in general, compounds that have tetrahedral coordination to oxygen(in iron oxide nanoparticles) such as the following:

-   -   Phosphate, PO₄ ³⁻    -   Molybdate, MO₄ ²    -   tetrahydroxyborate B(OH)₄ ⁻    -   chromate, CrO₄ ²⁻    -   tungstate, WO₄ ²⁻    -   manganate MnO₄ ²⁻    -   titanate, TiO₄ ²⁻    -   zirconate, ZrO₄ ⁴⁻        It is anticipated that, like sodium metasilicate, compounds        using the above moieties could be added to the aqueous solution        to facilitate production of two-line iron nanoparticles.

In one approach, the 2LI promoter is selected from the group consistingof the linear C3-C24 sugar alcohols, alkali metasilicates, andcombinations thereof. In one embodiment, the 2LI promoter is selectedfrom the group consisting of D-sorbitol, sodium metasilicate, andcombinations thereof.

iii. pH of the Aqueous Solution

The pH of the aqueous solution should be sufficiently acidic to restrictpremature precipitation of ferrihydrite nanoparticles. Generally, thestep of adding the iron salt to the aqueous solution will generate anacidic pH. In one embodiment, prior to the precipitating step (200), thepH of the aqueous solution is not greater than 5.0. In anotherembodiment, prior to the precipitating step (200), the pH of the aqueoussolution is not greater than 4.5. In yet another embodiment, prior tothe precipitating step (200), the pH of the aqueous solution is notgreater than 4.0. In another embodiment, prior to the precipitating step(200), the pH of the aqueous solution is not greater than 3.5. In yetanother embodiment, prior to the precipitating step (200), the pH of theaqueous solution is not greater than 3.0.

iv. Molarity of the Aqueous Solution

The amount of iron cations in solution (both ferric and ferrous) shouldbe controlled to facilitate an appropriate amount of ferrihydritenanoparticles in the aqueous solution. In one approach, prior to theprecipitating step (200), the iron molarity of the aqueous solution isfrom 0.01M to 4.78M (combined moles of Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ per liter of theaqueous solution, at room temperature). In other words, the method maycomprise adding a sufficient amount of the iron salt to realize an ironmolarity of from 0.01M to 4.78M. In one embodiment, a method comprisesadding a sufficient amount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarityof at least 0.02M. In another embodiment, a method comprises adding asufficient amount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of atleast 0.05M. In yet another embodiment, a method comprises adding asufficient amount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of atleast 0.10M. In another embodiment, a method comprises adding asufficient amount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of atleast 0.15M. In yet another embodiment, a method comprises adding asufficient amount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of atleast 0.20M. In another embodiment, a method comprises adding asufficient amount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of atleast 0.25M. In one embodiment, a method comprises adding a sufficientamount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of not greater than4.0 M. In another embodiment, a method comprises adding a sufficientamount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of not greater than3.5M. In yet another embodiment, a method comprises adding a sufficientamount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of not greater than3.0M. In another embodiment, a method comprises adding a sufficientamount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of not greater than2.5M. In yet another embodiment, a method comprises adding a sufficientamount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of not greater than2.0M. In another embodiment, a method comprises adding a sufficientamount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of not greater than1.5M. In yet another embodiment, a method comprises adding a sufficientamount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of not greater than1.0M. In another embodiment, a method comprises adding a sufficientamount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of not greater than0.75M. In yet another embodiment, a method comprises adding a sufficientamount of the iron salt to realize an iron molarity of not greater than0.50M. In one particular approach, the iron molarity of the aqueoussolution is from 0.20M to 0.50M. As described below, the aqueoussolution can be diluted (e.g., after precipitation) to provide theappropriate amount of ferrihydrite nanoparticles in solution.

v. Ratio of Two-Line Iron Promoter to Iron

The ratio of the amounts of 2LI promoter and iron cations in thesolution may facilitate production of the two-line iron species of theferrihydrite nanoparticles during the precipitating step (200). In oneembodiment, the aqueous solution comprises a molar ratio of from 1:2 to1:1000 of the 2LI promoter to iron (2LI promoter: (combined amount ofFe³⁺ plus Fe²⁺)). In other words, due to the steps of adding an ironsalt and adding a 2LI promoter, the aqueous solution comprises a molarratio of from 1:2 to 1:1000 of the 2LI promoter to iron. In oneembodiment, the molar ratio of the 2LI promoter to the iron (Fe) in theaqueous solution is at least 1:5. In another embodiment, the molar ratioof the 2LI promoter to the iron (Fe) in the aqueous solution is at least1:10. In yet another embodiment, the molar ratio of the 2LI promoter tothe iron (Fe) in the aqueous solution is at least 1:15. In anotherembodiment, the molar ratio of the 2LI promoter to the iron (Fe) in theaqueous solution is at least 1:20. In one embodiment, the molar ratio ofthe 2LI promoter to the iron (Fe) in the aqueous solution is not greaterthan 1:500. In another embodiment, the molar ratio of the 2LI promoterto the iron (Fe) in the aqueous solution is not greater than 1:100. Inone embodiment, the aqueous solution comprises a molar ratio of from1:10 to 1:100 of the 2LI promoter to iron.

vi. Amount of Halide Anions

As noted above, the aqueous solution should comprise at least somehalide anions. As described in further detail below, halide anions mayfacilitate regeneration of the two-line iron species and/orlepidocrocite species of the ferrihydrite nanoparticles. In oneembodiment, the halide anions comprise non-fluoride halide anions.Fluoride may be detrimental because its electronegativity mightpotentially interfere in sulfur contaminant removal. In one embodiment,the halide anions are chloride anions. The amount of halide ions in theaqueous solution should generally exceed the amount of iron ions in theaqueous solution. In one embodiment, the aqueous solution contains 1.5halide ions for every iron ion, i.e. the aqueous solution has a halideion to iron ion ratio of at least 1.5:1. In one embodiment, the aqueoussolution contains from 2.0 to 5.0 halide ions for every iron ion, i.e.the aqueous solution has a halide ion to iron ion ratio of from 2:1 to5:1.

C. Precipitation of Fresh Ferrihydrite Nanoparticles

As shown in FIGS. 1 and 3, fresh ferrihydrite nanoparticles may beprecipitated in the aqueous solution via addition of caustic, such as analkali caustic (e.g., NaOH or KOH), thereby producing the ferrihydriteslurry. As shown in FIG. 3, the method may include contacting theprepared aqueous solution with an alkali caustic, thereby raising the pHof the aqueous solution. The increase in pH will eventually lead toprecipitation of fresh ferrihydrite nanoparticles or an intermediatethereof. In embodiments where lepidocrocite is being produced, oxidantaddition (e.g., via air sparging; via hydrogen peroxide or ozoneaddition) may be required to oxidize an intermediate (e.g., a green rustintermediate) to form the lepidocrocite nanoparticles. A freshferrihydrite slurry comprising fresh two-line iron nanoparticles, freshlepidocrocite nanoparticles, or combinations thereof may thus beproduced.

After the contacting step, the fresh ferrihydrite slurry generallycomprises fresh ferrihydrite nanoparticles, 2LI promoter, and with atleast some alkali ions and at least some of the halide anions, afterwhich the slurry may be used to treat a polluted sulfur-containing fluid(described in further detail below). In one embodiment, the freshferrihydrite slurry realizes a pH of from 5 to 12. In anotherembodiment, the fresh ferrihydrite slurry realizes a pH of at least 6.In one embodiment, the fresh ferrihydrite slurry realizes a pH of notgreater than 9. In one embodiment, the fresh ferrihydrite slurryrealizes a pH of from 6 to 8.

In some embodiments, it may be possible to omit the 2LI promoter fromthe ferrihydrite slurry. For instance, in embodiments, wherelepidocrocite is being utilized in lieu of two-line iron nanoparticles,the 2LI promoter may be omitted from the ferrihydrite slurry. However,the halide anions should be included/should remain in the ferrihydriteslurry.

i. Rate of Addition of Caustic

The caustic should be added to the aqueous solution at a ratesufficiently high that formation of akaganeite is restricted. Whenproducing the two-line iron species of the ferrihydrite nanoparticles,generally a sufficient amount of caustic should be added to rapidlyincrease the pH of the aqueous solution until a large volume of thetwo-line iron species of the ferrihydrite nanoparticles haveprecipitated/are precipitating and the pH of the solution is generallystable, generally around pH 4 for fresh aqueous solutions. At thispoint, the rate of caustic addition may be slowed to regulate the properpH and inhibit reversion to akaganeite. The amount of caustic requiredto achieve this effect will depend on the iron molarity of the aqueoussolution. Similar caustic rates may be employed when producinglepidocrocite. In one embodiment, a fresh ferrihydrite slurry comprisesno akaganeite as measured via the IR Spectrum procedure, described inthe Definitions section, below.

In one embodiment, at least 80% of the total amount of the caustic isadded to the prepared aqueous solution within 2 hours. In anotherembodiment, at least 80% of the total amount of the caustic is added tothe prepared aqueous solution within 1.5 hours. In yet anotherembodiment, at least 80% of the total amount of the caustic is added tothe prepared aqueous solution within 1 hour. In another embodiment, atleast 80% of the total amount of the caustic is added to the preparedaqueous solution within 30 minutes. In another embodiment, at least 80%of the total amount of the caustic is added to the prepared aqueoussolution within 15 minutes. In another embodiment, at least 80% of thetotal amount of the caustic is added to the prepared aqueous solutionwithin 5 minutes. In another embodiment, at least 80% of the totalamount of the caustic is added to the prepared aqueous solution within 1minute. In another embodiment, all of the caustic is added to all of theprepared aqueous solution at about the same time (e.g., via a staticmixer).

ii. Content of Fresh Ferrihydrite Slurry

As noted above, after the contacting step, the fresh ferrihydrite slurrygenerally comprises fresh ferrihydrite nanoparticles, 2LI promoter, andwith at least some alkali ions and at least some of the halide anions.Due to the processes disclosed herein, the fresh ferrihydrite slurry maycontain a high volume of two-line iron nanoparticles, lepidocrocitenanoparticles, or combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the volume offresh ferrihydrite nanoparticles of the fresh ferrihydrite slurryconsist essentially of two-line iron nanoparticles. In anotherembodiment, the volume of fresh ferrihydrite nanoparticles of the freshferrihydrite slurry consist essentially of lepidocrocite nanoparticles.In yet another embodiment, the volume of fresh ferrihydritenanoparticles of the fresh ferrihydrite slurry consist essentially of amixture of two-line iron nanoparticles and lepidocrocite nanoparticles.In one embodiment, a fresh ferrihydrite slurry is generally free ofakaganeite nanoparticles, goethite nanoparticles, hematitenanoparticles, and magnetite nanoparticles. The content of the freshferrihydrite nanoparticles may be determined in accordance with theFresh XRD measurement and IR Spectrum measurement procedures, describedin the “Definitions” section, below.

In some embodiments, it may be possible to omit the 2LI promoter fromthe ferrihydrite slurry. For instance, in embodiments, wherelepidocrocite is being utilized in lieu of two-line iron nanoparticles,the 2LI promoter may be omitted from the ferrihydrite slurry. However,the halide anions should be included/should remain in the ferrihydriteslurry. Further, as shown in the below examples, a fresh ferrihydriteslurry consisting essentially of lepidocrocite may be regenerated into aregenerated ferrihydrite slurry having at least some two-line irontherein.

As described above, the iron molarity of the aqueous solution may becontrolled to provide the appropriate amount of ferrihydritenanoparticles in solution. As described below, the ferrihydritenanoparticles may be dissolved by the sulfur of the pollutedsulfur-containing fluid (e.g., by sulfur in the 2⁻ oxidation state),thereby producing ferrous iron ions. The reaction kinetics betweensulfur and the ferrous iron ions is higher than that associated with thesurface interaction of sulfur and the ferrihydrite nanoparticles, so itis preferred to use the appropriate amount of ferrihydrite nanoparticlesin solution so as to facilitate a high capture efficiency, but withoutrequiring a large time period to dissolve the ferrihydrite nanoparticlesto ferrous iron ions. Controlling the molarity and/or diluting theferrihydrite slurry may facilitate the appropriate amount offerrihydrite nanoparticles in solution. In one approach, a freshferrihydrite slurry comprises from 0.05 to 10.0 wt. % ferrihydritenanoparticles. In one embodiment, a fresh ferrihydrite slurry comprisesat least 0.15 wt. % ferrihydrite nanoparticles. In another embodiment, afresh ferrihydrite slurry comprises at least 0.25 wt. % ferrihydritenanoparticles. In yet another embodiment, a fresh ferrihydrite slurrycomprises at least 0.35 wt. % ferrihydrite nanoparticles. In anotherembodiment, a fresh ferrihydrite slurry comprises at least 0.50 wt. %ferrihydrite nanoparticles. In yet another embodiment, a freshferrihydrite slurry comprises at least 0.75 wt. % ferrihydritenanoparticles. In one embodiment, a fresh ferrihydrite slurry comprisesnot greater than 9.0 wt. % ferrihydrite nanoparticles. In anotherembodiment, a fresh ferrihydrite slurry comprises not greater than 8.0wt. % ferrihydrite nanoparticles. In yet another embodiment, a freshferrihydrite slurry comprises not greater than 7.0 wt. % ferrihydritenanoparticles. In another embodiment, a fresh ferrihydrite slurrycomprises not greater than 6.0 wt. % ferrihydrite nanoparticles. In yetanother embodiment, a fresh ferrihydrite slurry comprises not greaterthan 5.0 wt. % ferrihydrite nanoparticles. In another embodiment, afresh ferrihydrite slurry comprises not greater than 4.0 wt. %ferrihydrite nanoparticles. In yet another embodiment, a freshferrihydrite slurry comprises not greater than 3.5 wt. % ferrihydritenanoparticles. In another embodiment, a fresh ferrihydrite slurrycomprises not greater than 3.0 wt. % ferrihydrite nanoparticles. In yetanother embodiment, a fresh ferrihydrite slurry comprises not greaterthan 2.5 wt. % ferrihydrite nanoparticles. In another embodiment, afresh ferrihydrite slurry comprises not greater than 2.0 wt. %ferrihydrite nanoparticles. In yet another embodiment, a freshferrihydrite slurry comprises not greater than 1.5 wt. % ferrihydritenanoparticles. As may be appreciated, more concentrated ferrihydriteslurries (e.g., having molarities higher than those directlycorresponding to the weight percentages described in this paragraph) maybe produced, and such concentrated ferrihydrite slurries may beappropriately diluted prior to use in treating a pollutedsulfur-containing fluid stream.

D. Treatment of a Polluted Sulfur-Containing Fluid

Once produced, the ferrihydrite slurry may be used to treat a pollutedsulfur-containing fluid. For instance, and referring now to FIG. 4a , acontainer (10) may include a fresh ferrihydrite slurry (400), the freshferrihydrite slurry having fresh ferrihydrite nanoparticles, the 2LIpromoter, alkali ions and halide anions therein. A pollutedsulfur-containing fluid stream (450), such as a natural gas streamcomprising H₂S, may flow into the slurry (400) via a polluted fluidinlet (not shown). Due to the contents of the slurry, including thefresh ferrihydrite nanoparticles, much of the sulfur contaminants of thepolluted fluid may be treated. In turn, a treated fluid (500) havingsubstantially less sulfur pollutants may be discharged from thecontainer (10) via a treated fluid outlet (not shown). Elemental sulfurmay be produced as a result of the contact between the pollutedsulfur-containing fluid stream (450) and the ferrihydrite slurry (400).

i. Regeneration

The ferrihydrite slurries produced in accordance with the technologicalteachings described herein may be regenerable, durable and stable.Referring now to FIG. 4b , a spent ferrihydrite slurry (405) may bereadily regenerable via contact with an oxygen-containing fluid (i.e.,an oxidizing agent), such as ambient air. In one embodiment, an ambientair stream (455) flows into the spent ferrihydrite slurry (405) via anair inlet (not shown), and a spent air-stream (505) is discharged via anair outlet (not shown). Due to the content of the ferrihydrite slurry,simple contact with air may regenerate a substantial amount of (or evenall of) the ferrihydrite nanoparticles. The use of ambient air as theregenerating fluid forgoes the need for any special regeneration fluids,thereby reducing the cost of the H₂S scrubbing system. The volume of airused in the regeneration should be sufficient to oxidize and regeneratethe ferrihydrite nanoparticles. Generally at least 0.75 moles (e.g.,0.75-50 moles) of oxygen per mole of iron in the aqueous solution may beused.

It is hypothesized that the presence of sulfur in the slurry, incombination with the other materials of the slurry, may facilitatepreferential regeneration of two-line iron nanoparticles. Thesulfur-containing pollutant (e.g., H₂S) may at least partially dissolveat least some of the nanoparticles, which may produce hydroxide andferrous ions. Bisulfide anions produced from the aqueoussulfur-containing pollutant may react with the ferrous ions to produceFeS(s). The FeS(s) may selectively be oxidized to the two-linenanoparticles by an oxidative dissolution mechanism wherein the FeSnanoparticles are oxidatively dissolved with an oxidant such as oxygenfrom air. The oxidative dissolution thereby produces zero-valent sulfurand ferrous ions which are readily reacted with dissolved oxygen,producing ferric ions. The ferric and ferrous ions may precipitate inaqueous solutions containing halide ions, preferably chloride ions, toform an intermediate (e.g., a green rust intermediate), which issubsequently selectively oxidized to the two-line nanoparticles. Theproposed mechanism involves surface-mediated and solution-mediatedprocesses, in combination with halide ions and 2LI promoters tofacilitate generation of and regeneration of two-line ironnanoparticles.

Due to the processes disclosed herein, the regenerated ferrihydriteslurry may contain a high volume of two-line iron nanoparticles,lepidocrocite nanoparticles, or combinations thereof. In one embodiment,the volume of regenerated ferrihydrite nanoparticles of the regeneratedferrihydrite slurry consist essentially of two-line iron nanoparticles.In another embodiment, the volume of regenerated ferrihydritenanoparticles of the regenerated ferrihydrite slurry consist essentiallyof lepidocrocite nanoparticles. In yet another embodiment, the volume ofregenerated ferrihydrite nanoparticles of the regenerated ferrihydriteslurry consist essentially of a mixture of two-line iron nanoparticlesand lepidocrocite nanoparticles. In one embodiment, a regeneratedferrihydrite slurry is generally free of akaganeite nanoparticles,goethite nanoparticles, hematite nanoparticles, and magnetitenanoparticles. The content of the regenerated ferrihydrite nanoparticlesmay be determined in accordance with the Regenerated XRD measurement andIR Spectrum measurement procedures, described in the “Definitions”section, below.

ii. Slurry Activity, Capture Efficiency and Durability

As shown by the below data, the new ferrihydrite slurries disclosedherein are capable of realizing high activity, low loss, and highcapture efficiency. Further, the ferrihydrite slurries are durable,capable of realizing high six-cycle activity, low six-cycle loss, andhigh six-cycle capture efficiencies (average). The slurries are alsostable, capable of realizing a low six-cycle standard deviation. Thesecapabilities are to be tested in a batch setting, and not in acontinuous recirculation setting. See, the “Definitions” section, below.

In one embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle activityof at least 6.0, when tested in accordance with the H₂S CaptureProcedure (defined below). In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurryrealizes a six-cycle activity of at least 6.2. In yet anotherembodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle activity of atleast 6.4. In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes asix-cycle activity of at least 6.6. In yet another embodiment, aferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle activity of at least 6.8. Inanother embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle activityof at least 7.0. In yet another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurryrealizes a six-cycle activity of at least 7.2. In another embodiment, aferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle activity of at least 7.4. Inyet another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycleactivity of at least 7.5. In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurryrealizes a six-cycle activity of at least 7.6. In yet anotherembodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle activity of atleast 7.7. In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes asix-cycle activity of at least 7.8. In yet another embodiment, aferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle activity of at least 7.9. Inanother embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle activityof at least 8.0. In yet another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurryrealizes a six-cycle activity of at least 8.1. In another embodiment, aferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle activity of at least 8.2. Inyet another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycleactivity of at least 8.3. In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurryrealizes a six-cycle activity of at least 8.4. In yet anotherembodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle activity of atleast 8.5, or higher

In one embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle loss ofnot greater than 45%, when tested in accordance with the H₂S CaptureProcedure (defined below). In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurryrealizes a six-cycle loss of not greater than 40%. In yet anotherembodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle loss of notgreater than 37%. In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizesa six-cycle loss of not greater than 34%. In yet another embodiment, aferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle loss of not greater than 31%.In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle lossof not greater than 28%. In yet another embodiment, a ferrihydriteslurry realizes a six-cycle activity of not greater than 26%. In anotherembodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle loss of notgreater than 24%. In yet another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurryrealizes a six-cycle activity of not greater than 22%. In anotherembodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle loss of notgreater than 20%, or less.

In one embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle captureefficiency (average) of at least 92%, when tested in accordance with theH₂S Capture Procedure (defined below). In another embodiment, aferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle capture efficiency (average) ofat least 93%. In yet another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizesa six-cycle capture efficiency (average) of at least 94%. In anotherembodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle captureefficiency (average) of at least 95%. In yet another embodiment, aferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle capture efficiency (average) ofat least 96%. In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes asix-cycle capture efficiency (average) of at least 97%. In yet anotherembodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle captureefficiency (average) of at least 98%, or higher.

In one embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle standarddeviation of not greater than 1.75%, when tested in accordance with theH₂S Capture Procedure (defined below), where the standard deviation iscalculated over a ferrihydrite activity of 0.2 to 0.8 for each capturecycle. In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cyclestandard deviation of not greater than 1.50%. In yet another embodiment,a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle standard deviation of notgreater than 1.25%. In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurryrealizes a six-cycle standard deviation of not greater than 1.00%. Inyet another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cyclestandard deviation of not greater than 0.90%. In another embodiment, aferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle standard deviation of notgreater than 0.80%. In yet another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurryrealizes a six-cycle standard deviation of not greater than 0.70%. Inanother embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle standarddeviation of not greater than 0.60%. In yet another embodiment, aferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle standard deviation of notgreater than 0.50%. In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurryrealizes a six-cycle standard deviation of not greater than 0.40%. Inyet another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cyclestandard deviation of not greater than 0.30%. In another embodiment, aferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle standard deviation of notgreater than 0.25%, or less.

In one approach, a ferrihydrite slurry has high activity over sixcapture cycles. In one embodiment, at least three capture cycles of thesix capture cycles realize a slurry activity of at least 1.0, whentested in accordance with the H₂S Capture Procedure (defined below). Inanother embodiment, at least four cycles of the six capture cyclesrealize a slurry activity of at least 1.0. In yet another embodiment, atleast five cycles of the six capture cycles realize a slurry activity ofat least 1.0. In another embodiment, all six capture cycles realize aslurry activity of at least 1.0.

Some non-limiting ferrihydrite slurry performance embodiments areprovided in Table 1, below, which embodiments generally relate to abatch-mode performance. A ferrihydrite slurry operated in a continuousmode environment (e.g., in accordance with FIG. 4d , or similar) mayrealize any one of these ferrihydrite slurry performance embodiments, ifsuch a slurry were operated in batch-mode.

TABLE 1 Non-Limiting Ferrihydrite Slurry Performance EmbodimentsSix-Cycle Cycles at Six- Six- Capture Six-Cycle or above Cycle CycleEfficiency Standard 1.0 in Embodiment Activity Loss (average) DeviationActivity 1 ≥6.0 ≤45% ≥92% ≤1.75% ≥3 2 ≥6.0 ≤45% ≥93% ≤1.50% ≥3 3 ≥6.0≤45% ≥93% ≤1.00% ≥3 4 ≥6.2 ≤40% ≥93% ≤1.00% ≥4 5 ≥6.4 ≤37% ≥93% ≤1.00%≥4 6 ≥6.6 ≤34% ≥93% ≤1.00% ≥4 7 ≥6.8 ≤31% ≥93% ≤0.90% ≥4 8 ≥7.0 ≤31%≥93% ≤0.90% ≥5 9 ≥7.2 ≤31% ≥94% ≤0.80% ≥5 10 ≥7.4 ≤31% ≥94% ≤0.80% ≥5 11≥7.5 ≤31% ≥94% ≤0.80% All Six 12 ≥7.6 ≤31% ≥94% ≤0.80% All Six 13 ≥7.7≤31% ≥94% ≤0.80% All Six 14 ≥7.8 ≤31% ≥94% ≤0.80% All Six 15 ≥7.9 ≤31%≥94% ≤0.80% All Six 16 ≥8.0 ≤31% ≥95% ≤0.70% All Six 17 ≥8.1 ≤31% ≥95%≤0.70% All Six 18 ≥8.2 ≤28% ≥95% ≤0.60% All Six 19 ≥8.3 ≤26% ≥95% ≤0.60%All Six 20 ≥8.4 ≤24% ≥96% ≤0.50% All Six 21 ≥8.5 ≤22% ≥97% ≤0.40% AllSix

iii. Types of Polluted Sulfur-Containing Fluids

The ferrihydrite slurries described herein may be useful in treating avariety of polluted sulfur-containing fluids, such as polluted fluidscontaining any of H₂S, COS, CS₂, or mercaptans. In one embodiment, thepolluted sulfur-containing fluid comprises natural gas. In anotherembodiment, the polluted sulfur-containing fluid comprises syngas. Inanother embodiment, the polluted sulfur-containing fluid comprisesbiogas. In another embodiment, a polluted sulfur-containing fluidcomprises sour water. In another embodiment, a pollutedsulfur-containing fluid comprises sour crude oil. In another embodiment,a polluted sulfur-containing fluid comprises off-gas (e.g., for odorcontrol). In yet another embodiment, a polluted sulfur-containing fluidcomprises geothermal condensate (e.g., from a geothermal powerplant).

E. Cartridges

In one embodiment, the ferrihydrite slurries described herein may beused in a cartridge so as to facilitate rapid replacement in a sulfurtreatment system employing the ferrihydrite slurries. In one embodiment,a method may include (a) preparing a replacement cartridge containing afresh ferrihydrite slurry, as described herein, (b) shipping thereplacement cartridge to an H₂S (or other sulfur impurity) scrubber,wherein the H₂S scrubber is located remote of the preparing step, (c)removing a used or spent cartridge from the H₂S scrubber, (d) insertingthe replacement cartridge in the H₂S scrubber, (e) flowing a pollutedfluid having H₂S into the replacement cartridge, and (f) removing atleast some of the H₂S from the polluted fluid at least via theferrihydrite nanoparticles of the replacement cartridge. In this regard,and as noted above, such a method may include discharging a treatedfluid from the replacement cartridge, wherein the treated fluidcomprises at least 90% less H₂S than the polluted fluid (e.g., 99% less,or higher). As it relates to regeneration, the method may also includethe steps of stopping the flowing step (e), and regenerating theferrihydrite nanoparticles of the replacement cartridge, wherein theregenerating comprises flowing a gas comprising oxygen (e.g., ambientair) into the replacement cartridge. The method may further include thestep of, after the regenerating step, initiating the flowing step (e),and then repeating the discharging, stopping, regenerating, andinitiating steps at least five times, wherein, the cartridge realizes asix-cycle activity of at least 6.0, a six-cycle loss of not greater than45%, a six-cycle capture efficiency (average) of at least 92%, asix-cycle standard deviation of not greater than 1.75, and where atleast three cycles of the six capture cycles realize an activity of atleast 1.0, (such as any of the embodiments described in Table 1, above).The cartridges described herein are not limited to any size, and may beof a size and configuration to hold any suitable volume of ferrihydriteslurry, depending on application. For instance, the cartridges may besized to hold a few ounces of slurry, or less (e.g., for use in alab-scale operation), or the cartridges may be sized to hold 10,000gallons of slurry, or more, (e.g., for use in an industrial/productionsetting).

F. Continuous Operation Via Dual Column Arrangements

i. Lead-Lag Continuous Embodiment

Referring now to FIG. 4c , a first continuous treatment arrangement isillustrated. In the illustrated embodiment, continuous treatment of apolluted sulfur-containing fluid stream (450) may be facilitated using adual column (lead-lag) type arrangement, where a first slurry column (10a) having a first batch of ferrihydrite slurry (400 a) and a secondslurry column (10 b) having a second batch of ferrihydrite slurry (400b) are alternated to treat the polluted sulfur-containing fluid stream(450). In particular, a polluted sulfur-containing stream (450) may beprovided (e.g., via one or more knockout drums (475)), after which thepolluted sulfur-containing stream (450) may be provided to the firstslurry column (10 a) via a series of valves (600) and piping, whereinthe polluted sulfur-containing stream (450) is treated via the firstferrihydrite slurry (400 a), as described above. A treated fluid stream(500) may be discharged from the first slurry column (10 a). When thefirst ferrihydrite slurry (400 a) approaches slurry breakthrough, or isat slurry breakthrough, the valves (600) may be adjusted to switch theflow of the polluted sulfur-containing stream (450) to the second column(10 b) having the second ferrihydrite slurry (400 b), therebyfacilitating continued treatment of the polluted sulfur-containingstream (450) and continued discharge of the treated fluid stream (500).While the second column (10 b) is being used to treat the pollutedsulfur-containing stream (450), the first ferrihydrite slurry (400 a)may be regenerated by providing an air stream (455) to the first column(10 a) via blower (459), valves (600) and piping. When the secondferrihydrite slurry (400 b) approaches or is at slurry breakthrough, thevalves (600) may be adjusted to switch the flow of the pollutedsulfur-containing stream (450) back to the first column (10 a) havingthe regenerated first ferrihydrite slurry (400 a), thereby facilitatingcontinued treatment of the polluted sulfur-containing stream (450) andcontinued discharge of the treated fluid stream (500). Likewise, whilethe first column (10 a) is being used to treat the pollutedsulfur-containing stream (450), the second ferrihydrite slurry (400 b)may be regenerated by providing the air stream (455) to the secondcolumn (10 b) via blower (459), valves (600) and piping. The first andsecond ferrihydrite slurries (400 a, 400 b) may be utilized until theyare no longer suitable for treatment of the polluted sulfur-containingstream (450), after which a used or spent ferrihydrite slurries may bereplaced, such as by discharging the applicable used ferrihydrite slurrythrough an appropriate drain (not shown), and then introducing a freshferrihydrite slurry into the applicable column (10 a, 10 b). In anotherapproach, the cartridges, described above, may be used in the columns(10 a, 10 b), to facilitate rapid replacement of the used or spentferrihydrite slurry with the fresh ferrihydrite slurry. In either event,the used ferrihydrite slurries may be replaced in alternating fashion(in series) so as to facilitate continuous treatment of the pollutedsulfur-containing stream (450).

In the lead-lag embodiments described above, or in a similar batch-modeapparatus, the ferrihydrite slurry may be exposed to the pollutedsulfur-containing fluid stream until breakthrough is nearly reached(e.g., up to 90% of breakthrough). However, it has been found thatexposing a ferrihydrite slurry to a polluted sulfur-containing fluid fora period up to or close to breakthrough may degrade the lifetime of theferrihydrite slurry. Thus, in some embodiments, a ferrihydrite slurry(e.g., as used in lead-lag columns (10 a, 10 b) or in a similarbatch-mode apparatus) is exposed to a polluted sulfur-containing fluidstream until it reaches about three-quarters (¾), or less, of itsbreakthrough capacity, after which the exposure ceases, and theferrihydrite slurry is regenerated, if appropriate. In one embodiment, aferrihydrite slurry is exposed to a polluted sulfur-containing fluidstream until about two-thirds (⅔), or less, of its breakthroughcapacity, after which the exposure ceases, and the ferrihydrite slurryis regenerated, if appropriate. In one embodiment, the ferrihydriteslurry is operated to at least one-seventh ( 1/7), or more, of itsbreakthrough capacity. In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry isoperated to at least one-quarter (¼), or more, of its breakthroughcapacity. In another embodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry is operated to atleast one-third (⅓), or more, of its breakthrough capacity. In anotherembodiment, a ferrihydrite slurry is operated to at least one-half (½),or more, of its breakthrough capacity.

ii. Recirculating Continuous Embodiment

Referring now to FIG. 4d , a second continuous treatment arrangement fortreating a polluted sulfur-containing fluid stream (450) is illustrated.In the illustrated embodiment, the continuous treatment may befacilitated using a dual column type arrangement, where the columns (10a and 10 b) contain at least some ferrihydrite slurry (400 a). In theillustrated embodiment, the first column (10 a) is used to treat thepolluted sulfur-containing fluid stream (450), and the second column (10b) is used to regenerate the ferrihydrite slurry (400 a), wherein theferrihydrite slurry (400 a) is recirculated between the two columns (10a, 10 b) during operation. In particular, a polluted sulfur-containingstream (450) may be provided to the first column (e.g., via one or moreknockout drums (475), which knockout drums (475) may facilitategas-liquid separation of the incoming polluted stream (450)). Thepolluted stream (450) is provided to the first column (10 a), and sulfurtherein interacts with the ferrihydrite particles of the ferrihydriteslurry (400 a), as provided above, thereby removing sulfur from thepolluted stream (450). A treated stream (500) is thus discharged fromthe first column. The treated stream (500) may have a significantlylower amount of sulfur as compared to the incoming polluted stream(450), such as any of the removal efficiencies and/or ppm levelsdescribed below. Concomitantly, a blower (455) blows air stream (459)(or other suitable oxygen-containing fluid stream) into the secondcolumn (10 b), thereby regenerating ferrihydrite particles of theferrihydrite slurry (400 a) in the second column (10 b). This air stream(459) may be provided continuously or intermittently to the secondcolumn. Pumps (615 a, 615 b) may intermittently or continuously transferthe ferrihydite slurry (400 a) between the first column (10 a) and thesecond column (10 b) during operation.

The produced elemental sulfur generated in the second column (10 b) maybe removed as stream (510), and via any suitable industrial solid-liquidseparation practice, such as, for example, filtration, flotation (e.g.,froth flotation), or settling, or combinations thereof. In oneembodiment, a frothing agent may be added (e.g., intermittently) toassist with the sulfur removal (e.g., to assist with flotation), e.g., apolyglycol. In one embodiment, a settling agent may be added tofacilitate with the sulfur removal (e.g., to assist with settling), suchas a flocculant or surfactant. Organic agents generally immiscible withwater (e.g., toluene, xylene) may also/alternatively be used (e.g., forinteracting with the elemental sulfur). These sulfur removal techniquesmay also be used in the lead-lag system, described above. The sulfurstream (510) generally will contain elemental sulfur and some water, butmay also contain iron materials, and may contain additional materialscontained in the incoming polluted stream.

In one approach, the air stream (459) is also provided (e.g.,intermittently, continuously) to the first column (10 a) to facilitateregeneration of ferrihydrite particles and/or production of elementalsulfur. In this approach, any elemental sulfur contained in the firstcolumn (10 a) may be removed as described above relative to the secondcolumn (10 b).

As noted above, circulation of the slurry between the first and thesecond columns (10 a, 10 b) may be continuous or intermittent. In oneembodiment, the circulation is continuous recirculation. The circulationmay maintain the volume of ferrihydrite slurry in each column. Forinstance, the circulation may maintain a first volume of ferrihydriteslurry in the first column (10 a), and maintain a second volume offerrihydrite slurry in the second column (10 b), the first and secondvolumes, wherein the total volume of the ferrihydrite slurry equals thesum of these first and second volumes. Make-up ferrihydrite stream (notillustrated) may be provided, as necessary, to one of or both of thefirst and second columns (10 a, 10 b), as needed to facilitate having anappropriate total volume of ferrihydrite slurry in the system.

As noted above air stream (459) may be provided continuously orintermittently to the second column (10 b). The air stream (459) mayalso be provided continuously or intermittently to the first column (10a). Providing air to the first column (10 a)(e.g., intermittently) mayfacilitate improved ferrihydrite slurry lifetimes.

While both the lead-lag system (FIG. 4c ) and the continuousrecirculation system (FIG. 4d ) are illustrated with only two columns,any number of columns may be used to facilitate continuous treatment.

iii. Recirculation Continuous Mode Removal Capabilities

As described previously, the performance of a system employing aferrihydrite slurry in a batch mode setting (e.g., in a lead-lag system,or another batch-mode apparatus) may be characterized as per Section(D)(ii), above. The performance of a ferrihydrite slurry operating in acontinuously recirculating system (e.g., in accordance with FIG. 4d , orsimilar) may likewise be characterized by operating the system in batchmode, using fresh ferrihydrite slurry, to test performance.Alternatively, the performance of a ferrihydrite slurry operating in acontinuously recirculating system may be characterized by the amount ofsulfur discharged in the treated stream (500) over the life of theferrihydrite slurry. In one approach, the discharged treated stream(500) contains at least 90% less sulfur as compared to the correspondinginlet concentration of the polluted sulfur-containing fluid stream (450)during the life of the ferrihydrite slurry (e.g., a life of from1/7^(th) to ¾ of breakthrough), depending on the setting in which thesystem is used (e.g., natural gas treatment, biogas treatment,geothermal stream treatment). In one embodiment, the discharged treatedstream (500) contains at least 95% less sulfur as compared to thecorresponding inlet concentration of the polluted sulfur-containingfluid stream (450) during the life of the ferrihydrite slurry. Inanother embodiment, the discharged treated stream (500) contains atleast 98% less sulfur as compared to the corresponding inletconcentration of the polluted sulfur-containing fluid stream (450)during the life of the ferrihydrite slurry. In yet another embodiment,the discharged treated stream (500) contains at least 99% less sulfur ascompared to the corresponding inlet concentration of the pollutedsulfur-containing fluid stream (450) during the life of the ferrihydriteslurry. In another embodiment, the discharged treated stream (500)contains at least 99.9% less sulfur as compared to the correspondinginlet concentration of the polluted sulfur-containing fluid stream (450)during the life of the ferrihydrite slurry. In yet another embodiment,the discharged treated stream (500) contains at least 99.99% less sulfuras compared to the corresponding inlet concentration of the pollutedsulfur-containing fluid stream (450) during the life of the ferrihydriteslurry. In another embodiment, the discharged treated stream (500)contains at least 99.999% less sulfur, or more, as compared to thecorresponding inlet concentration of the polluted sulfur-containingfluid stream (450) during the life of the ferrihydrite slurry. In any ofthese approaches or embodiments, the discharged fluid stream may containlow levels of sulfur (e.g., low levels of H₂S, COS, CS2, mercaptans, intotal), such as not greater than 3000 ppm (max.) of total sulfur,depending on the type of polluted sulfur-containing fluid stream beingtreated. For instance, the discharged fluid stream may contain greaterthan 2000 ppm (max.) of total sulfur. In one embodiment, the dischargedfluid stream contains not greater than 1000 ppm of total sulfur. Inanother embodiment, the discharged fluid stream contains not greaterthan 500 ppm (max.) of total sulfur. In yet another embodiment, thedischarged fluid stream contains not greater than 250 ppm (max.) oftotal sulfur. In another embodiment, the discharged fluid streamcontains not greater than 100 ppm (max.) of total sulfur. In yet anotherembodiment, the discharged fluid stream contains not greater than 50 ppm(max.) of total sulfur. In another embodiment, the discharged fluidstream contains not greater than 25 ppm (max.) of total sulfur. In yetanother embodiment, the discharged fluid stream contains not greaterthan 10 ppm (max.) of total sulfur. In another embodiment, thedischarged fluid stream contains not greater than 5 ppm (max.) of totalsulfur. In yet another embodiment, the discharged fluid stream containsnot greater than 4 ppm (max.) of total sulfur. In another embodiment,the discharged fluid stream contains not greater than 3 ppm (max.) oftotal sulfur. In yet another embodiment, the discharged fluid streamcontains not greater than 2 ppm (max.) of total sulfur. In anotherembodiment, the discharged fluid stream contains not greater than 1 ppm(max.) of total sulfur. In yet another embodiment, the discharged fluidstream contains not greater than 0.5 ppm (max.) of total sulfur. Inanother embodiment, the discharged fluid stream contains not greaterthan 0.1 ppm (max.) of total sulfur. In yet another embodiment, thedischarged fluid stream contains not greater than 0.05 ppm (max.) oftotal sulfur. In another embodiment, the discharged fluid streamcontains not greater than 0.01 ppm (max.) of total sulfur. In yetanother embodiment, the discharged fluid stream contains not greaterthan 0.005 ppm (max.) of total sulfur, or less.

In one approach, the continuous recirculation system (e.g., inaccordance with FIG. 4d , or similar) treats a polluted natural gasstream, and the continuous recirculation system discharges a treated gasstream compliant with applicable natural gas pipeline sulfurrequirements (e.g., H₂S requirements), and over the life of theferrihydrite slurry. For instance, in North America (and potentiallyelsewhere) the continuous recirculation system treats a polluted naturalgas stream, and discharges a treated gas stream having not greater than4 ppm (max.) H₂S over the life of the ferrihydrite slurry.

G. Use of Raw Ferrihydrite Particles

As noted above, the ferrihydrite slurries are preferably produced byprecipitating ferrihydrite nanoparticles via iron ions of an aqueoussolution, and leaving the precipitated nanoparticles in solution.However, it is anticipated that other methods of producing ferrihydriteslurries may also have value relative to treatment of pollutedsulfur-containing fluids. For instance, raw ferrihydrite particles(two-line iron particles, lepidocrocite particles, and combinationsthereof) may be simply added to water to produce a ferrihydrite slurry.The particles should be finely ground to facilitate high availablesurface area.

H. Definitions

As used herein, “iron salt” means a salt of either ferric (3⁺) orferrous (2⁺) iron.

As used herein, “nanoparticles” means particles generally smaller than500 nanometers. As used herein, “iron nanoparticles” means nanoparticleshaving at least some ferric iron therein. The iron nanoparticles maycontain, for instance, oxygen and hydrogen. In one embodiment, the ironnanoparticles are ferrihydrite nanoparticles. Ferrihydrite nanoparticlesmade in accordance with the present patent application may have a mediansize (D₅₀) of from about 10 nanometers to 60 nanometers and a surfacearea of from about 200 to 300 m²/g as determined by N₂ BET isothermanalysis.

As used herein, “ferric oxides” means a ferric oxide material or aferric oxyhydroxide material. Ferric oxides include two-line iron,lepidocrocite, akaganeite, goethite, hematite, and magnetite.

As used herein, “ferrihydrite” means the two-line iron form or thelepidocrocite form of ferric oxides.

As used herein, “ferrihydrite nanoparticles” means a volume ofnanoparticles having two-line iron nanoparticles therein, lepidocrocitenanoparticles therein, or combinations of two-line iron nanoparticlesand lepidocrocite nanoparticles therein.

As used herein, “ferrihydrite slurry” means an aqueous slurry havingferrihydrite nanoparticles therein. A ferrihydrite slurry generallycontains a sufficient amount of the two-line iron species and/orlepidocrocite species of the ferrihydrite nanoparticles to treat apolluted sulfur-containing fluid. The ferrihydrite slurry may include asufficient amount of a 2LI promoter and/or halide anions to facilitatemultiple regeneration cycles, wherein two-line iron nanoparticles and/orlepidocrocite nanoparticles are regenerated by exposure to an oxidizingmaterial (e.g., air).

As used herein, “slurry” means an aqueous solution comprisingnanoparticles. For the purposes of the present patent application,“slurry” and “suspension” are synonymous.

As used herein, “fresh ferrihydrite slurry” means a ferrihydrite slurrythat has yet to treat a polluted sulfur-containing fluid. A freshferrihydrite slurry may comprise fresh ferrihydrite nanoparticles.“Fresh ferrihydrite nanoparticles” are precipitated ferrihydritenanoparticles of the fresh ferrihydrite slurry that have yet to interactwith a sulfur pollutant of a polluted sulfur-containing fluid.

As used herein, “slurry activity” or “ferrihydrite slurry activity”means the moles of sulfur captured per mole of iron of a batch offerrihydrite slurry over a single capture cycle when tested inaccordance with the “H₂S Capture Procedure” described below. As usedherein, “cumulative slurry activity” or “cumulative ferrihydrite slurryactivity” means the moles of sulfur captured per mole of iron of thebatch of ferrihydrite slurry over multiple cycles.

As used herein, “slurry breakthrough” means a decrease in captureefficiency of 10% over a change in slurry activity (S:Fe ratio) of 0.1,i.e., the point at which a ferrihydrite slurry realizes a “captureefficiency slope” of −100, or lower, per unit of ferrihydrite slurryactivity and over a ferrihydrite slurry activity period (span) of atleast 0.1 unit, when tested in accordance with the “H₂S CaptureProcedure” described below. For instance, in FIG. 5c the slurrybreakthrough for Cycle 6 occurs at approximately a ferrihydrite slurryactivity of 1.24.

As used herein “capture efficiency slope” means the linear slope of aline having ferrihydrite slurry capture efficiency as the Y-axis andferrihydrite slurry activity as the X-axis.

As used herein, “a capture cycle” means the period of time starting whena batch of ferrihydrite slurry is exposed to a pollutedsulfur-containing fluid and continuing until the ferrihydrite slurryreaches slurry breakthrough. The ferrihydrite slurry may be regeneratedinto a regenerated ferrihydrite slurry after a capture cycle. Shortercapture cycles (i.e., not to breakthrough) may be used in a productionenvironment, but a “capture cycle” used to determine “captureefficiency” and other metrics of a batch of ferrihydrite slurry (asdescribed herein) are operated to breakthrough.

As used herein, “capture efficiency” or “ferrihydrite slurry captureefficiency” means the percent of sulfur pollutant (e.g., H₂S) of asulfur-containing fluid that is captured relative to the total sulfur inthe sulfur-containing fluid (i.e., S captured/total S in thesulfur-containing fluid) as a result of being exposed to a batch offerrihydrite slurry, when tested in accordance with the “H₂S CaptureProcedure” described below. As shown in the below Examples, captureefficiency can be plotted as a function of ferrihydrite slurry activity.

As used herein, “average capture efficiency” or “average ferrihydriteslurry capture efficiency” is the mean ferrihydrite slurry captureefficiency over a capture cycle, using the mean value theorem:

${f(x)}_{ave} = {\frac{1}{b - a}{\int_{a}^{b}{{f(x)}{dx}}}}$

where f(x) is ferrihydrite slurry capture efficiency, and x isferrihydrite slurry activity. For each capture cycle, the above integralis approximated using the trapezoidal rule:

${\int_{a}^{b}{{f(x)}{dx}}} \approx {\frac{1}{2}{\sum\limits_{k = 1}^{N}{\left( {x_{k + 1} - x_{k}} \right)\left( {{f\left( {x_{{k + 1})} + {f\left( x_{k} \right)}} \right)}.} \right.}}}$

As used herein, “capture efficiency standard deviation” or “ferrihydriteslurry capture efficiency standard deviation” is the standard deviationof the average capture efficiency. Standard deviation is calculatedusing the below equation, where N is the population size, x_(i) is thecapture efficiency of the individual value, and μ is the average captureefficiency.

$\sqrt{\frac{1}{N}*{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N}\left( {x_{i} - \mu} \right)^{2}}}$

In Examples 2-9, below, the capture efficiency standard deviation iscalculated over a slurry activity period of 0.20 to 0.80.

As used herein, “six-cycle activity” means the cumulative ferrihydriteslurry activity of a batch of ferrihydrite slurry over six capturecycles, the batch of ferrihydrite slurry being regenerated into aregenerated ferrihydrite slurry after each capture cycle.

As used herein, “six-cycle loss” means the cumulative percentage loss ofa batch of ferrihydrite slurry activity over six cycles (i.e., ((cycle 1ferrihydrite slurry activity)−(cycle 6 ferrihydrite slurryactivity))/(cycle 1 ferrihydrite slurry activity). For instance, for acycle 1 ferrihydrite slurry activity of 1.50 and a cycle 6 ferrihydriteslurry activity of 1.27, a ferrihydrite slurry would have a “six-cycleloss” of 15.33% ((1.5−1.27)/1.5=0.1533).

As used herein, “six-cycle capture efficiency (average)” means theaverage ferrihydrite slurry capture efficiency of a batch offerrihydrite slurry over six capture cycles, the batch of ferrihydriteslurry being regenerated into a regenerated ferrihydrite slurry aftereach capture cycle. The six-cycle capture efficiency (average) is thesum of the mean value theorem integral for each of the six capturecycles, divided by the six-cycle activity.

As used herein, “six-cycle standard deviation” means the cumulativeferrihydrite slurry standard deviation of a batch of ferrihydrite slurryover six capture cycles.

As used herein, “used ferrihydrite slurry” means a ferrihydrite slurrythat has been exposed to a polluted sulfur-containing fluid for a timesufficient to produce at least some ferrihydrite slurry activity, suchas a ferrihydrite slurry activity of at least 0.10. In one embodiment, aused ferrihydrite slurry has been exposed to a pollutedsulfur-containing fluid for a ferrihydrite slurry activity of at least0.2. In another embodiment, a used ferrihydrite slurry has been exposedto a polluted sulfur-containing fluid for a ferrihydrite slurry activityof at least 0.3. In yet another embodiment, a used ferrihydrite slurryhas been exposed to a polluted sulfur-containing fluid for aferrihydrite slurry activity of at least 0.4. In another embodiment, aused ferrihydrite slurry has been exposed to a pollutedsulfur-containing fluid for a ferrihydrite slurry activity of at least0.5. In yet another embodiment, a used ferrihydrite slurry has beenexposed to a polluted sulfur-containing fluid for a ferrihydrite slurryactivity of at least 0.6. In another embodiment, a used ferrihydriteslurry has been exposed to a polluted sulfur-containing fluid for aferrihydrite slurry activity of at least 0.7, or more. A “usedferrihydrite slurry” contains spent ferrihydrite nanoparticles.

“Spent ferrihydrite nanoparticles” means iron-containing nanoparticles(whether ferrihydrite-style, or otherwise) having reduced or no activityrelative to sulfur constituents in a ferrihydrite slurry (e.g., due toferrihydrite particles having contact with/reacting with sulfur of apolluted sulfur-containing fluid stream).

As used herein, “spent ferrihydrite slurry” means a ferrihydrite slurrythat has achieved slurry breakthrough. A “spent ferrihydrite slurry”contains spent ferrihydrite nanoparticles.

As used herein, “regenerated ferrihydrite slurry” means a used or spentferrihydrite slurry that has been regenerated via exposure to anoxidizing material (e.g., via exposure to air). A regeneratedferrihydrite slurry comprises regenerated ferrihydrite nanoparticles.

As used herein, “regenerated ferrihydrite nanoparticles” areferrihydrite nanoparticles that have been regenerated from the used orspent ferrihydrite slurry. The regenerated ferrihydrite nanoparticles ofthe regenerated ferrihydrite slurry may be regenerated via exposure toan oxidizing material (e.g., via exposure to air). The regeneratedferrihydrite nanoparticles may have renewed activity towards one or moresulfur species.

As used herein, “two-line iron” means a ferric oxyhydroxide materialthat, when examined by XRD, generally presents two peaks over 10 to 90degrees (2Θ(theta)) using a cobalt source (1.79 Å(angstrom) k-alpha),and where each peak has a spread of at least 4 degrees 2 theta, fullwidth at half max (FWHM). Some two-line iron nanoparticles may show afirst peak at about 38-43 degrees (2Θ) and a second peak at about 71-77degrees (2Θ) using a chromium source (1.79 Å(angstrom) k-alpha), andwhere each peak has a spread of at least 4 degrees 2 theta, full widthat half max (FWHM).

As used herein, “lepidocrocite” means a ferric oxyhydroxide materialthat, realizes an XRD Spectrum generally consistent with JCPDS cardnumber 00-060-0344 and an IR spectrum containing characteristic peaks at1019, 748, and 456 cm⁻¹.

As used herein, “akaganeite” means an iron oxide material that realizesan XRD spectrum generally consistent with JCPDS card number 00-060-0614and an IR spectrum containing characteristic peaks at 825, 635, and 420cm⁻¹.

As used herein, “goethite” means an iron oxide material that realizes anXRD spectrum generally consistent with JCPDS card number 04-015-8332 andan IR spectrum containing characteristic peaks at 906, 793, and 623cm⁻¹.

As used herein, “hematite” means an iron oxide material that realizes anXRD spectrum generally consistent with JCPDS card number 01-076-8881 andan IR spectrum containing characteristic peaks at 519 and 435 cm⁻¹.

As used herein, “magnetite” means an iron oxide material that realizesan XRD spectrum generally consistent with JCPDS card number 04-009-8442and an IR spectrum containing characteristic peaks at 969 and 532 cm⁻¹.

As used herein, “JCPDS card number” means the “Joint Committee on PowderDiffraction Standards” card associated with the given number. JCPDS cardnumbers can be located via powder x-ray diffraction software equippedwith a license from the “International Centre for Diffraction Data”(www.icdd.com) and an applicable inorganic materials database.

As used herein, “two-line iron promoter” or “2LI promoter” means amaterial added to an aqueous solution that preferentially promotesproduction of the two-line iron species of ferrihydrite nanoparticles inthe aqueous solution (e.g., during their precipitation/the precipitatingstep), and/or preferentially restricts degradation of the two-line ironspecies of ferrihydrite nanoparticles in the aqueous solution.

As used herein, “caustic” means a basic solution having hydroxide ions.

As used herein, “alkali caustic”, means a caustic made from alkalimetals (Group IA of the periodic table), such as alkali hydroxides(e.g., NaOH, KOH) and alkali carbonates (e.g., Na₂CO₃, NaHCO₃), forinstance.

As used herein, “biogas” means any gas comprising hydrogen sulfide,methane and/or CO2 that was produced by biological degradation oforganic matter.”

H₂S Capture Procedure

A ferrihydrite slurry is made as described herein. H₂S gas is suppliedto 20 mL of the ferrihydrite slurry via a compressed gas cylindercontaining 10% by volume hydrogen sulfide in a balance of nitrogen andmixed with nitrogen to achieve an inlet concentration of approximately2000 ppm H₂S. Mass flow controllers (e.g., by Alicat Scientific) areused to precisely control the inlet concentration at a total flow rateof 0.5 SLPM. Once mixed, the gases enter the bottom of a 3 foot tall,one-half inch Sch. 80 clear PVC bubble column and through an EPDM gasketsparger. The outlet hydrogen sulfide concentration is to be measured bya gas chromatograph (e.g., Shimadzu GC-14A) using a FPD detector andAgilent Hayesep Q 80-100 mesh column.

Fresh Slurry XRD Analysis Procedure

1. Produce fresh ferrihydrite slurry.2. Filter the slurry using a glass microfiber filter (filter size of 0.3micron) using vacuum filtration.3. Wash the vacuum cake via deionized water with 50 mL of water per gramof particulate; repeat wash twice more.4. Air dry the filtered and washed particulate, removed from filter, andthen grind to a fine powder.5. Analyze the fine powder via XRD using a cobalt source.

Regenerated Slurry XRD analysis procedure

1. Produce regenerated ferrihydrite slurry.2. Dissolve any sulfur of the slurry by pouring hot toluene 70° C.) intothe room temperature slurry and then stir the room temperature slurryvigorously (heat should not be applied to the slurry), after which theaqueous layer should be removed (e.g., via a separatory funnel). Repeatas necessary (e.g., at least two more times) until sulfur is removed.3. Complete steps 2-5 of the Fresh Slurry XRD analysis procedure.

IR Spectrum Procedure

1. A fine iron oxide powder is provided as per either the fresh XRD orregenerated XRD analysis procedure, described above.2. The “IR Spectrum” is the infrared absorbance of the iron oxide powdermaterials from item 1, above, under a force of 85 Newtons, measured witha Perkin Elmer Spectrum Two UATR FT-IR instrument, wherein theinstrument and accompanied Perkin Elmer Spectrum program scans the solid10 individual times to produce the spectrum. The IR Spectrum may beaccompanied by an uncertainty in the peak locations by about +/−15 cm⁻¹.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic flow diagram of one embodiment of a method forproducing a ferrihydrite slurry as described in this patent application.

FIG. 2 is a schematic view of one method of producing an aqueoussolution having ferric iron cations, 2LI promoter, and halide anionstherein.

FIG. 3 is a schematic view of one method of precipitating ferrihydritenanoparticles from the aqueous solution shown in FIG. 2.

FIG. 4a is a schematic view of an arrangement for a ferrihydrite slurryto treat a polluted fluid.

FIG. 4b is a schematic view of an arrangement for regenerating a usedferrihydrite slurry via an oxygen-containing fluid.

FIG. 4c is a schematic view of a dual column approach to using batchesof ferrihydrite slurry so as to facilitate continuous treatment of apolluted sulfur-containing stream.

FIG. 4d is a schematic view of a dual column approach employingcontinuous recirculation so as to facilitate continuous treatment of apolluted sulfur-containing stream. The ferrihydrite slurry of FIG. 4dmay be continuously regenerated.

FIGS. 5a-5b are SEMs of the ferrihydrite nanoparticles of Example 1.

FIG. 5c is a graph showing the ferrihydrite slurry activity and captureefficiency for the ferrihydrite slurry of Example 1.

FIGS. 6-12 are graphs showing the ferrihydrite slurry activity andcapture efficiency for the ferrihydrite slurries of Examples 3-9,respectively.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Example 1—Synthesis of a 1 wt. % FerrihydriteSlurry Using Ferric Chloride and D-sorbitol

An aqueous slurry comprising 1 wt. % two-line iron, 0.05 mole ofD-sorbitol and 3 mole of sodium chloride for every 1 mole of ferric ironwas made by the following synthesis procedure. A total of 0.6 g ofanhydrous D-sorbitol was added to 304.7 mL of deionized water, followedby the addition of 10.1 g of anhydrous ferric chloride. The resultingsolution had a molar ratio of D-sorbitol to iron of about 1:20. Once thesalt was dissolved and the solution cooled to ambient temperature, 1Msodium hydroxide at room temperature was added from a burette at a fastrate with stirring until the solution reached a pH of about 3.Additional sodium hydroxide was added at a slow dropwise rate until pHof about 7 was reached for a total sodium hydroxide addition ofapproximately 187.4 mL. The total time to reach pH 7 was approximately30 minutes. An XRD analysis confirmed that the iron nanoparticles formedin this synthesis consist essentially of two-line iron nanoparticles.The two-line iron nanoparticles had an average surface area of about 306m²/g as determined by BET (N₂) and a particle size less than 100nanometers as determined by SEM.

Example 2—Testing of H₂S Capture Efficiency of the Two-Line Iron SlurryMade from Ferric Chloride and D-Sorbitol

A two-line iron slurry synthesized as per Example 1 was tested for itsH₂S capture efficiency and regenerability. In particular, H₂S wassupplied from a compressed gas cylinder containing a 10% by volumehydrogen sulfide in a balance of nitrogen and mixed with nitrogen togenerate an inlet concentration of approximately 2000 ppm H₂S. AlicatScientific mass flow controllers were used to precisely control theinlet concentration at a total flow rate of 0.5 SLPM. Once mixed, thegases were supplied to the bottom of a 3-foot tall, one-half inch Sch.80 clear PVC bubble column and went through an EPDM gasket sparger. Atotal of 20 mL of the 1 wt. % slurry was tested. The outlet hydrogensulfide concentration was measured by a Shimadzu GC-14A gaschromatograph using a FPD detector and Agilent Hayesep Q 80-100 meshcolumn. FIG. 5c shows the six-cycle activity and capture efficiency ofthe slurry. Over the six cycles, the H₂S capture efficiency wasconsistently greater than 95% until breakthrough. After each cycle, theslurry was regenerated by simple exposure to ambient air for about 30minutes. Table 2, below, shows collected data for each cycle. Theferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle activity of 7.89, a six-cyclecapture efficiency of 98%, a six-cycle loss of 22%, and a six-cyclestandard deviation of 0.36%. Further, all six capture cycles realized anactivity of at least 1.16, the largest run-to-run loss was 9%, and thelargest single capture cycle standard deviation was 0.81. After thefirst capture cycle, the largest single capture cycle deviation was0.41%.

TABLE 2 Slurry activity and loss for two-line iron nanoparticlessynthesized from ferric chloride and stabilized with D-sorbitol Activity(cumulative moles of Average sulfur captured per Loss Capture StandardCycle mole of iron) (run-to-run) Efficiency Deviation 1 1.48 — 97% 0.81%2 1.45 2% 99% 0.18% 3 1.33 9% 98% 0.41% 4 1.27 4% 99% 0.33% 5 1.20 6%98% 0.20% 6 1.16 4% 98% 0.22% TOTAL 7.89 22%  98% 0.36%

Example 3—Testing of H₂S Capture Efficiency of the Two-Line Iron SlurryMade from Ferric Sulfate and D-Sorbitol

A ferrihydrite slurry similar to Example 1 was prepared, except usingferric sulfate as the iron salt instead of ferric chloride. The H₂Scapture efficiency and regenerability of this slurry was measured as perthe conditions of Example 2. FIG. 6 shows the capture efficiency of andactivity of this ferrihydrite slurry for six cycles. As shown in Table3, the six-cycle activity only reaches 6.43, with a total loss inactivity of 50%, and a six-cycle standard deviation of 1.82%. Further,three cycles were below an activity of 1.0, the largest run-to-run losswas 31% and the largest standard deviation was 4.34%.

TABLE 3 Slurry activity and loss for ferrihydrite slurry synthesizedfrom ferric sulfate and stabilized with D-sorbitol Average Loss CaptureStandard Cycle Activity (run-to-run) Efficiency Deviation 1 1.32 — 92%2.42% 2 1.50 −13%  97% 0.26% 3 1.05 30% 92% 2.38% 4 0.94 11% 98% 0.51% 50.96 −2% 97% 1.03% 6 0.66 31% 96% 4.34% TOTAL 6.43 50% 95% 1.82%

Example 4—Testing of H₂S Capture Efficiency of the Two-Line Iron SlurryMade from Ferric Chloride without Use of a Two-Line Iron Promoter

A ferrihydrite slurry similar to Example 1 was prepared, exceptD-sorbitol was not employed. The H₂S capture efficiency andregenerability of this slurry was measured as per the conditions ofExample 2. FIG. 7 shows the capture efficiency of and activity of thisferrihydrite slurry for six cycles. The six-cycle activity was 8.10, thesix-cycle loss was 31%, the six-cycle capture efficiency was 96%, andthe six-cycle standard deviation was 0.28%. Further, all six capturecycles realized an activity of at least 1.13, the largest run-to-runloss was 11%, and the largest single capture cycle standard deviationwas 0.76%. After the first capture cycle, the largest single capturecycle deviation was 0.34%.

TABLE 4 Slurry activity and loss for ferrihydrite slurry synthesizedfrom ferric chloride Average Loss Capture Standard Cycle Activity(run-to-run) Efficiency Deviation 1 1.65 — 96% 0.76% 2 1.49 10% 93%0.34% 3 1.33 11% 96% 0.15% 4 1.25  6% 96% 0.18% 5 1.26 −1% 96% 0.16% 61.13 11% 98% 0.08% TOTAL 8.10 31% 96% 0.28%

Example 5—Production of Ferrihydrite Slurry with Slow Caustic Addition

A ferrihydrite slurry similar to Example 1 was prepared, except NaOH wasslowly added at a constant rate over about a 3.5 hour period, resultingin the formation of both two-line iron and akaganeite. The H₂S captureefficiency and regenerability of this slurry was measured as per theconditions of Example 2. FIG. 8 shows the capture efficiency of andactivity of this ferrihydrite slurry for six cycles. The six-cycleactivity was 6.92, the six-cycle loss was 28%, the six-cycle captureefficiency was 92%, and the six-cycle standard deviation was 2.85%.Further, two of the capture cycles realized an activity of at less than1.0, the largest run-to-run loss was 26%, and the largest single capturecycle standard deviation was 4.26%. After the first capture cycle, thelargest single capture cycle deviation was 4.26%.

TABLE 5 Slurry activity and loss for ferrihydrite slurry synthesizedfrom ferric chloride Average Loss Capture Standard Cycle Activity(run-to-run) Efficiency Deviation 1 1.34 — 89% 3.63% 2 0.99 26% 89%4.26% 3 1.01 −2% 93% 4.10% 4 1.50 −48%  93% 0.96% 5 1.12 25% 94% 2.10% 60.97 14% 95% 2.06% TOTAL 6.92 28% 92% 2.85%

Example 6—Testing of H₂S Capture Efficiency of the Two-Line Iron SlurryMade from Ferric Chloride and Sodium Metasilicate

A ferrihydrite slurry similar to Example 1 was prepared, except sodiummetasilicate was used in lieu of D-sorbitol and in a molar ratio of 70:1iron to silicon. The H₂S capture efficiency and regenerability of thisslurry was measured as per the conditions of Example 2. FIG. 9 shows thecapture efficiency of and activity of this ferrihydrite slurry for sixcycles. The six-cycle activity was 7.96, the six-cycle loss was 19%, thesix-cycle capture efficiency was 93%, and the six-cycle standarddeviation was 0.74%. Further, all six capture cycles realized anactivity of at least 1.14, the largest run-to-run loss was 21%, and thelargest single capture cycle standard deviation was 1.15%. After thefirst capture cycle, the largest single capture cycle deviation was0.97%.

TABLE 6 Slurry activity and loss for ferrihydrite slurry synthesizedfrom ferric chloride and sodium metasilicate Average Loss CaptureStandard Cycle Activity (run-to-run) Efficiency Deviation 1 1.54 — 93%1.15% 2 1.44 6% 91% 0.97% 3 1.14 21%  93% 0.47% 4 1.32 −15%  91% 0.54% 51.28 3% 93% 0.95% 6 1.25 3% 95% 0.36% TOTAL 7.96 19%  93% 0.74%

Example 7—Testing of H₂S Capture Efficiency of the Two-Line Iron SlurryMade from Ferric Chloride, D-Sorbitol and Sodium Metasilicate

A ferrihydrite slurry similar to Example 1 was prepared, except sodiummetasilicate was used in addition to the D-sorbitol and in a molar ratioof 70:1 iron to silicon. The H₂S capture efficiency and regenerabilityof this slurry was measured as per the conditions of Example 2. FIG. 10shows the capture efficiency of and activity of this ferrihydrite slurryfor six cycles. The six-cycle activity was 8.47, the six-cycle loss was22%, the six-cycle capture efficiency was 97%, and the six-cyclestandard deviation was 0.26%. Further, all six capture cycles realizedan activity of at least 1.24, the largest run-to-run loss was 9%, andthe largest single capture cycle standard deviation was 0.65%. After thefirst capture cycle, the largest single capture cycle deviation was0.36%.

TABLE 7 Slurry activity and loss for ferrihydrite slurry synthesizedfrom ferric chloride, D-sorbitol and sodium metasilicate Average LossCapture Standard Cycle Activity (run-to-run) Efficiency Deviation 1 1.58— 95% 0.65% 2 1.55 2% 97% 0.36% 3 1.41 9% 98% 0.22% 4 1.36 4% 98% 0.08%5 1.33 2% 97% 0.08% 6 1.24 7% 97% 0.15% TOTAL 8.47 22%  97% 0.26%

Example 8—Testing of H₂S Capture Efficiency of the Two-Line Iron SlurryMade from Ferric Chloride with Chloride Ions Removed

A ferrihydrite slurry similar to Example 1 was prepared, except thealkali and halide (Cl⁻) ions were removed by centrifuging, decanting thesupernatant, and adding back deionized water a total of five times. Inaddition, the slurry contained about 0.5 wt. % two-line ironnanoparticles. The H₂S capture efficiency and regenerability of thisslurry was measured as per the conditions of Example 2, except the inletH₂S concentration was approximately 1000 ppm. FIG. 11 shows the captureefficiency of and activity of this ferrihydrite slurry for six cycles.The six-cycle activity was 6.11, the six-cycle loss was 44%, thesix-cycle capture efficiency was 93%, and the six-cycle standarddeviation was 0.48%. Further, three of the six capture cycles realizedan activity of less than 1.0, the largest run-to-run loss was 14%, andthe largest single capture cycle standard deviation was 0.79%.

TABLE 8 Slurry activity and loss for ferrihydrite slurry synthesizedfrom ferric chloride with chlorine anions removed Average Loss CaptureStandard Cycle Activity (run-to-run) Efficiency Deviation 1 1.35 — 92%0.14% 2 1.20 11% 95% 0.40% 3 1.03 14% 94% 0.55% 4 0.95  8% 93% 0.52% 50.83 13% 93% 0.51% 6 0.75  9% 91% 0.79% TOTAL 6.11 44% 93% 0.48%

Example 9—Testing of H₂S Capture Efficiency of the Lepidocrocite SlurryMade from Ferrous Chloride

A ferrihydrite slurry similar to Example 1 was prepared, except thatferrous chloride was used and NaOH was quickly added until pH 6-7 wasreached, after which the solution was oxidized via an air sparger whilemaintaining the pH of 6-7 via regular NaOH addition. The resultingslurry contained 100% lepidocrocite as determined via IR. This slurrywas diluted by deionized water to give a 0.5 wt. % ferrihydritesolution. The H₂S capture efficiency and regenerability of this slurrywas measured as per the conditions of Example 2, except the inlet H₂Sconcentration was approximately 1000 ppm. FIG. 12 shows the captureefficiency of and activity of this ferrihydrite slurry for six cycles.The six-cycle activity was 6.90, the six-cycle loss was 18%, thesix-cycle capture efficiency was 93%, and the six-cycle standarddeviation was 0.35%. All six capture cycles realized an activity of atleast 1.04, the largest run-to-run loss was 10%, and the largest singlecapture cycle standard deviation was 1.09%. After the first capturecycle, the largest single capture cycle deviation was 0.28%. As shownbelow, the capture efficiency increased for run 1 was only 85%, but thecapture efficiency for runs 2-6 was ≥93%. Due to the increase in captureefficiency, it is believed that at least some two-line ironnanoparticles were produced when the fresh lepidocrocite slurry wasregenerated, and that subsequent regeneration cycles also resulted ingeneration of two-line iron nanoparticles.

TABLE 9 Slurry activity and loss for ferrihydrite slurry synthesizedfrom ferrous chloride Average Loss Capture Standard Cycle Activity(run-to-run) Efficiency Deviation 1 1.27 — 85% 1.09% 2 1.16 9% 93% 0.20%3 1.24 −7%  94% 0.28% 4 1.11 10%  95% 0.27% 5 1.07 4% 94% 0.15% 6 1.043% 95% 0.10% TOTAL 6.90 18%  93% 0.35%

Analysis of Examples 1-9

Table 10, below, compares the results of Examples 1-9. As shown, theslurries of Examples 3 and 5 are not considered invention slurries. Theother slurries are considered invention slurries, being active, durable,and stable. The slurries of Examples 1 and 7 are particularly preferred,but the slurries of Examples 4, 6 and 8-9 are also useful.

TABLE 10 Results of Examples 1-9 Six- Six- Cycles Six- Six- LargestCycle Cycle below Invention Cycle Cycle Run-to- Capt. Stand. 1.0 in Ex.Slurry? Activity Loss Run Loss Effic. Dev. Activity 1-2 Yes 7.89 22%  9%98% 0.36% Zero 3 No 6.43 50% 31% 95% 1.82% Three 4 Yes 8.10 31% 11% 96%0.28% Zero 5 No 6.92 28% 26% 92% 2.85% Two 6 Yes 7.96 19% 21% 93% 0.74%Zero 7 Yes 8.47 22%  9% 97% 0.26% Zero 8 Yes 6.11 44% 14% 93% 0.48%Three 9 Yes 6.90 18% 10% 93% 0.35% Zero

While various embodiments of the new technology described herein havebeen described in detail, it is apparent that modifications andadaptations of those embodiments will occur to those skilled in the art.However, it is to be expressly understood that such modifications andadaptations are within the spirit and scope of the presently disclosedtechnology.

1.-20. (canceled)
 21. A method for treating a H₂S-containing fluid stream, the method comprising: (a) contacting a H₂S-containing fluid stream with a ferrihydrite slurry, wherein the ferrihydrite slurry includes ferrihydrite nanoparticles and a 2LI promotor wherein the contacting step results in (i) a treated fluid stream comprising less H₂S than the H₂S-containing stream and (ii) a used slurry including ferrous sulfide, a 2LI promotor, and a first sulfur concentration of sulfur obtained from the H₂S-containing stream; (b) regenerating the used slurry to obtain elemental sulfur and a regenerated ferrihydrite slurry, wherein regenerating includes: (i) contacting the used slurry with an oxidizing agent thereby converting at least some of the sulfur in the used slurry into elemental sulfur and converting at least some of the ferrous sulfide in the used slurry into regenerated ferrihydrite thereby forming regenerated ferrihydrite slurry; and (ii) separating the elemental sulfur from the regenerated ferrihydrite slurry, wherein the regenerated ferrihydrite slurry includes ferrihydrite nanoparticles and a 2LI promotor and a second sulfur concentration less than the first sulfur concentration of the used slurry; wherein the 2LI promotor is selected from the group consisting of alcohols, polyols, polysaccharides, alkali metasilicates and combinations thereof.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein steps (a) through (b) are repeated with the regenerated ferrihydrite slurry.
 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the 2LI promotor is selected from the group consisting of D-sorbitol, sodium metasilicates, and combinations thereof.
 24. The method of claim 22, wherein the H₂S-containing fluid stream is natural gas.
 25. The method of claim 22, wherein the H₂S-containing fluid stream is off-gas.
 26. The method of claim 22, wherein the H₂S-containing fluid stream is sour crude oil.
 27. The method of claim 22, wherein the H₂S-containing fluid stream is sour water.
 28. The method of claim 22, wherein the H₂S concentration of the treated fluid stream is 4 ppm or less.
 29. The method of claim 22, wherein the oxidizing agent is oxygen from air.
 30. The method of claim 22, wherein the regenerated ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle activity of at least 6.0, and at least three of the cycles realize a slurry activity of at least 1.0.
 31. The method of claim 22 wherein the regenerated ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle loss of not greater than 45%.
 32. The method of claim 22 wherein the regenerated ferrihydrite slurry realizes a six-cycle capture efficiency average of at least 92% and a six-cycle standard deviation of not greater than 1.75%.
 33. The method of claim 22 wherein elemental sulfur is separated from the used slurry in a regenerator.
 34. The method of claim 33 wherein an output of the regenerator is regenerated ferrihydrite slurry that is used in a subsequent contacting operation.
 35. The method of claim 22, wherein the oxidizing agent is air.
 36. The method of claim 22, wherein the H₂S-containing fluid stream is a gas containing CO2.
 37. The method of claim 22, wherein the contacting further comprises: flowing the H₂S-containing fluid stream into a contactor containing the ferrihydrite slurry; and removing the treated fluid stream comprising less H₂S than the H₂S-containing stream from the contactor.
 38. The method of claim 22, wherein regenerating further comprises: transferring used slurry from a contactor that performs the contacting operation a) to a regenerator that performs the regeneration operation b); and transferring regenerated ferrihydrite slurry from the regenerator to the contactor.
 39. The method of claim 22, further comprising: flowing the H₂S-containing fluid stream into a contacting column containing the ferrihydrite slurry; removing the treated fluid stream comprising less H₂S than the H₂S-containing stream from the contacting column; transferring used slurry from a contactor that performs the contacting operation a) to a regenerator that performs the regeneration operation b); and transferring regenerated ferrihydrite slurry from the regenerator to the contactor.
 40. The method of claim 39 wherein the contactor is a first column and the regenerator is a second column. 